Crosstalk of HDAC4, PP1, and GSDMD in controlling pyroptosis.

Gasdermin D (GSDMD) functions as a pivotal executor of pyroptosis, eliciting cytokine secretion following cleavage by inflammatory caspases. However, the role of posttranslational modifications (PTMs) in GSDMD-mediated pyroptosis remains largely unexplored. In this study, we demonstrate that GSDMD can undergo acetylation at the Lysine 248 residue, and this acetylation enhances pyroptosis. We identify histone deacetylase 4 (HDAC4) as the specific deacetylase responsible for mediating GSDMD deacetylation, leading to the inhibition of pyroptosis both in vitro and in vivo. Deacetylation of GSDMD impairs its ubiquitination, resulting in the inhibition of pyroptosis. Intriguingly, phosphorylation of HDAC4 emerges as a critical regulatory mechanism promoting its ability to deacetylate GSDMD and suppress GSDMD-mediated pyroptosis. Additionally, we implicate Protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) catalytic subunits (PP1α and PP1γ) in the dephosphorylation of HDAC4, thereby nullifying its deacetylase activity on GSDMD. This study reveals a complex regulatory network involving HDAC4, PP1, and GSDMD. These findings provide valuable insights into the interplay among acetylation, ubiquitination, and phosphorylation in the regulation of pyroptosis, offering potential targets for further investigation in the field of inflammatory cell death.

Ginsenoside Rg3 enriches SCFA-producing commensal bacteria to confer protection against enteric viral infection via the cGAS-STING-type I IFN axis.

The microbiota-associated factors that influence host susceptibility and immunity to enteric viral infections remain poorly defined. We identified that the herbal monomer ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) can shape the gut microbiota composition, enriching robust short-chain fatty acid (SCFA)-producing Blautia spp. Colonization by representative Blautia coccoides and Blautia obeum could protect germ-free or vancomycin (Van)-treated mice from enteric virus infection, inducing type I interferon (IFN-I) responses in macrophages via the MAVS-IRF3-IFNAR signaling pathway. Application of exogenous SCFAs (acetate/propionate) reproduced the protective effect of Rg3 and Blautia spp. in Van-treated mice, enhancing intracellular Ca2+- and MAVS-dependent mtDNA release and activating the cGAS-STING-IFN-I axis by stimulating GPR43 signaling in macrophages. Our findings demonstrate that macrophage sensing of metabolites from specific commensal bacteria can prime the IFN-I signaling that is required for antiviral functions.

Nanobodies against porcine CD163 as PRRSV broad inhibitor.

PRRSV (Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus) is a major swine pathogen causing economic losses. To the date, effective broad PRRSV inhibitory strategies have not been available in practice yet. Targeting the key viral receptor CD163 to block PRRSV entry has emerged as an alternative approach beside vaccines for PRRSV inhibition. As an effective therapeutic tool, nanoantibodies (Nbs) have been widely used in antiviral research. In this study, a phage display VHH library was constructed for the selection of Nbs against porcine CD163 scavenger receptor cysteine-rich 5-9 domain (SRCR5-9). After five rounds of bio-panning and indirect ELISA, seven CD163-specific Nbs (Nb1-Nb7) were identified. All obtained Nbs displayed strong affinity to CD163 receptor and excellent antiviral activity. In particular, Nb2 exhibited significant broad inhibitory effects on variable PRRSV lineages and downregulated virus-related NF-κB signaling. Further studies suggested that Nbs mainly exerted antiviral functions by interfering with virus attachment stage, and also decreased the transcription of CD163. The conformational epitopes recognized by Nbs were localized in the SRCR5 domain of CD163, a crucial region in PRRSV infection. Overall, our findings provide a novel insight into the biofunction of CD163 in antiviral infection and the development of broad-spectrum strategies against PRRSV.

Barnacle-Inspired Wet Tissue Adhesive Hydrogels with Inherent Antibacterial Properties for Infected Wound Treatment.

Currently, antibiotics are the most common treatment for bacterial infections in clinical practice. However, with the abuse of antibiotics and the emergence of drug-resistant bacteria, the use of antibiotics has faced an unprecedented challenge. It is imminent to develop nonantibiotic antimicrobial agents. Based on the cation-π structure of barnacle cement protein, a polyphosphazene-based polymer poly[(N,N-dimethylethylenediamine)-g-(N,N,N,N-dimethylaminoethyl p-ammonium bromide (ammonium bromide)-g-(N,N,N,N-dimethylaminoethyl acetate ethylammonium bromide)] (PZBA) with potential adhesion and inherent antibacterial properties was synthesized, and a series of injectable antibacterial adhesive hydrogels (PZBA-PVA) were prepared by cross-linking with poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA). PZBA-PVA hydrogels showed good biocompatibility, and the antibacterial rate of the best-performed hydrogel reached 99.81 ± 0.04% and 98.80 ± 2.16% against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli within 0.5 h in vitro, respectively. In the infected wound model, the healing rate of the PZBA-PVA-treated group was significantly higher than that of the Tegaderm film group due to the fact that the hydrogel suppressed inflammatory responses and modulated the infiltration of immune cells. Moreover, the wound healing mechanism of the PZBA-PVA hydrogel was further evaluated by real-time polymerase chain reaction and total RNA sequencing. The results indicated that the process of hemostasis and tissue development was prompted and the inflammatory and immune responses were suppressed to accelerate wound healing. Overall, the PZBA-PVA hydrogel is shown to have the potential for infected wound healing application.

Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus Antagonizes Host IFN-λ-Mediated Responses by Tilting Transcription Factor STAT1 toward Acetylation over Phosphorylation To Block Its Activation.

Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) is the main etiologic agent causing acute swine epidemic diarrhea, leading to severe economic losses to the pig industry. PEDV has evolved to deploy complicated antagonistic strategies to escape from host antiviral innate immunity. Our previous study demonstrated that PEDV downregulates histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1) expression by binding viral nucleocapsid (N) protein to the transcription factor Sp1, inducing enhanced protein acetylation. We hypothesized that PEDV inhibition of HDAC1 expression would enhance acetylation of the molecules critical in innate immune signaling. Signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) is a crucial transcription factor regulating expression of interferon (IFN)-stimulated genes (ISGs) and anti-PEDV immune responses, as shown by overexpression, chemical inhibition, and gene knockdown in IPEC-J2 cells. We further show that PEDV infection and its N protein overexpression, although they upregulated STAT1 transcription level, could significantly block poly(I·C) and IFN-λ3-induced STAT1 phosphorylation and nuclear localization. Western blotting revealed that PEDV and its N protein promote STAT1 acetylation via downregulation of HDAC1. Enhanced STAT1 acetylation due to HDAC1 inhibition by PEDV or MS-275 (an HDAC1 inhibitor) impaired STAT1 phosphorylation, indicating that STAT1 acetylation negatively regulated its activation. These results, together with our recent report on PEDV N-mediated inhibition of Sp1, clearly indicate that PEDV manipulates the Sp1-HDAC1-STAT1 signaling axis to inhibit transcription of OAS1 and ISG15 in favor of its replication. This novel immune evasion mechanism is realized by suppression of STAT1 activation through preferential modulation of STAT1 acetylation over phosphorylation as a result of HDAC1 expression inhibition. IMPORTANCE PEDV has developed sophisticated evasion mechanisms to escape host IFN signaling via its structural and nonstructural proteins. STAT1 is one of the key transcription factors in regulating expression of ISGs. We found that PEDV and its N protein inhibit STAT1 phosphorylation and nuclear localization via inducing STAT1 acetylation as a result of HDAC1 downregulation, which, in turn, dampens the host IFN signaling activation. Our study demonstrates a novel mechanism that PEDV evades host antiviral innate immunity through manipulating the reciprocal relationship of STAT1 acetylation and phosphorylation. This provides new insights into the pathogenetic mechanisms of PEDV and even other coronaviruses.

DNAJA3 Interacts with PEDV S1 Protein and Inhibits Virus Replication by Affecting Virus Adsorption to Host Cells.

Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) infection causes huge economic losses to the pig industry worldwide. DNAJA3, a member of the Hsp40 family proteins, is known to play an important role in the replication of several viruses. However, it remains unknown if it interacts with PEDV. We found that DNAJA3 interacted with PEDV S1, initially with yeast two-hybrid screening and later with Co-IP, GST pull-down, and confocal imaging. Further experiments showed the functional relationship between DNAJA3 and PEDV in the infected IPEC-J2 cells. DNAJA3 overexpression significantly inhibited PEDV replication while its knockdown had the opposite effect, suggesting that it is a negative regulator of PEDV replication. In addition, DNAJA3 expression could be downregulated by PEDV infection possibly as the viral strategy to evade the suppressive role of DNAJA3. By gene silencing and overexpression, we were able to show that DNAJA3 inhibited PEDV adsorption to IPEC-J2 cells but did not affect virus invasion. In conclusion, our study provides clear evidence that DNAJA3 mediates PEDV adsorption to host cells and plays an antiviral role in IPEC-J2 cells.

Transcriptome analysis revealed inhibition of lipid metabolism in 2-D porcine enteroids by infection with porcine epidemic diarrhea virus.

Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) is a swine enterovirus that causes huge economic losses to the swine industry. It is of great interest to understand the gene expression patterns of host responses to PEDV infection and the mechanistic insights. Here, we report the differences of gene expression profiles by RNA-seq in the porcine small intestinal 2-D enteroids cells infected with low-passage (16 passages, P16) and high-passage (120 passages, P120) PEDV strains for 12, 24 and 36 h. Of the 57 genes differentially expressed in P16 PEDV infected enteroids, 49 were upregulated and 7 downregulated at all time points. There were 247 genes with different patterns of expression in the enteroids infected with P120 PEDV: upregulation seen with 105 genes and downregulation with the remaining majority at all time points. Infection of both P16 and P120 PEDV strains led to significant upregulation of ISGs, such as ISG15, MX1 and RSAD2. In particular, P120 PEDV infection inhibited transcription of genes related to lipid metabolism, including those involved in lipid decomposition, absorption, bile secretion and cholesterol metabolism. Treatment of the infected enteroids with palmitic acid resulted in marked reduction of replication of both P16 and P120 PEDV strains. These results indicate that PEDV might manipulate lipid metabolism of the host to benefit its replication. Further research is warranted to study the mechanisms how palmitic acid inhibits PEDV replication.

Sanguinarine ameliorates DSS induced ulcerative colitis by inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome activation and modulating intestinal microbiota in C57BL/6 mice.

BACKGROUND: Sanguinarine (SAN) is an important natural anti-inflammatory constitutes and dietary supplementation with SAN could improve the relative length of the intestine, alter gut microbiota, and enhance growth performance of pigs, broiler chickens, and cattle. However, it is unclear whether it has the therapeutic effect on ulcerative colitis (UC). PURPOSE: This study aimed to investigate the therapeutic effect of SAN on UC and explore its mechanisms of action. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: Several efficacy indexes of SAN on dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced C57BL/6 mice were evaluated. ELISA kit and western blot analysis were used to evaluate it's anti-inflammatory effect and the mechanism of action. 16S rDNA sequencing detection was used to determine the impact of SAN on gut microbiota. RESULTS: SAN and Sulfasalazine could significantly improve the colon length, the weight loss, the symptoms and the pathological injury of colon in DSS-induced mice. Meanwhile, SAN could decrease the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-13 and IL-18) and increase the levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4 and IL-10) in colon, and suppress DSS-induced high expressions of NLRP3, caspase-1 and IL-1ß. In addition, SAN (0.5, 1 µM) could inhibit the expression level of NLRP3 and the activation of caspase-1 and IL-1ß in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated THP-1 cells in non-cytotoxic doses, which was similar to that of MCC950, a specific inhibitor of NLRP3 inflammasome activation. The abundance changes of many genera such as Muribaculaceae_unclassified, Escherichia-Shigella, Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group and Helicobacter were also closely related to the improvement of SAN on intestinal inflammatory response. CONCLUSION: SAN exhibited therapeutic effect on DSS-induced colitis by blocking NLRP3-(Caspase-1)/IL-1ß pathway and improving intestinal microbial dysbiosis. SAN might be developed to treat UC and other disorders associated with microbial dysbiosis.

Formation of Blood Neutrophil Extracellular Traps Increases the Mastitis Risk of Dairy Cows During the Transition Period.

The current study was conducted to analyze the functions of blood neutrophils in transition cows and their association with postpartum mastitis risk as indicated by somatic cell counts (SCCs) in milk. Seventy-six healthy Holstein dairy cows were monitored from Week 4 prepartum to Week 4 postpartum. Five dairy cows with low SCCs (38 ± 6.0 × 103/mL) and five with high SCCs (3,753 ± 570.0 × 103/mL) were selected based on milk SCCs during the first three weeks of lactation. At Week 1 pre- and postpartum, serum samples were obtained from each cow to measure neutrophil extracellular trap (NET)-related variables, and blood neutrophils were collected for transcriptome analysis by RNA sequencing. The serum concentration of NETs was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in cows with high SCCs than in cows with low SCCs (36.5 ± 2.92 vs. 18.4 ± 1.73 ng/mL). The transcriptomic analysis revealed that the transcriptome differences in neutrophils between high- and low-SCC cows were mainly in cell cycle-related pathways (42.6%), including the cell cycle, DNA damage, and chromosomal conformation, at Week 1 prepartum. The hub genes of these pathways were mainly involved in both the cell cycle and NETosis. These results indicated that the formation of NETs in the blood of transition dairy cows was different between cows with low and high SCCs, which may be used as a potential indicator for the prognosis of postpartum mastitis risk and management strategies of perinatal dairy cows.

Establishment of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays based on recombinant S1 and its truncated proteins for detection of PEDV IgA antibody.

Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) can infect pigs of all ages, especially piglets. PEDV has spread across Asia since the 1980s. The highly virulent variant PEDV broke out on a large scale and caused huge economic losses to the pig industry in late 2010 in China. Rapid detection methods with high specificity and sensitivity are urgently needed for the diagnosis and control of the disease. In this study, we divided the PEDV S1 gene into three segments and constructed the recombinant plasmids pFastBac1-S1T1 (aa 21-279), pFastBac1-S1T2 (aa 280-539) and pFastBac1-S1T3 (aa 540-788), which carry the different antigenic regions of the S1 gene. Truncated S1 proteins PEDV-S1T1/S1T2/S1T3 were obtained by a Bac-to-Bac expression system, with protein sizes of 36 kDa, 38 kDa and 38 kDa, respectively. Recombinant proteins presented high reactivity with the monoclonal antibody against PEDV and positive pig serum. Based on full-length S1 protein and these truncated proteins, we established indirect ELISA methods for the detection of PEDV IgA antibody. A total of 213 clinical serum samples were tested by the above indirect ELISA methods, and IFA was used as the gold standard. ROC curves revealed a significant correlation between S1-ELISA and S1T2-ELISA with a 0.9134 correlation coefficient and favourable sensitivity and specificity of S1-ELISA (93.24%, 95.68%) and S1T2-ELISA (89.33%, 94.16%). Our results also indicated that serum with higher neutralizing activity (SNT ≥ 40) had a higher IgA antibody level based on S1-ELISA, S1T1-ELISA and S1T2-ELISA. In conclusion, both S1-ELISA and S1T2-ELISA can be used as candidate systems for detecting anti-PEDV IgA antibody titers in serum, which can reflect the level of neutralizing activity in pigs after natural infection or vaccination. The above research results provide a basis for the prevention and control of PEDV and can be used in the detection of host anti-infective immunity and evaluation of vaccine immune effects.

E3 ubiquitin ligase SYVN1 is a key positive regulator for GSDMD-mediated pyroptosis.

Gasdermin D (GSDMD) participates in the activation of inflammasomes and pyroptosis. Meanwhile, ubiquitination strictly regulates inflammatory responses. However, how ubiquitination regulates Gasdermin D activity is not well understood. In this study, we show that pyroptosis triggered by Gasdermin D is regulated through ubiquitination. Specifically, SYVN1, an E3 ubiquitin ligase of gasdermin D, promotes GSDMD-mediated pyroptosis. SYVN1 deficiency inhibits pyroptosis and subsequent LDH release and PI uptake. SYVN1 directly interacts with GSDMD, and mediates K27-linked polyubiquitination of GSDMD on K203 and K204 residues, promoting GSDMD-induced pyroptotic cell death. Thus, our findings revealed the essential role of SYVN1 in GSDMD-mediated pyroptosis. Overall, GSDMD ubiquitination is a potential therapeutic module for inflammatory diseases.

Coronaviruses Nsp5 Antagonizes Porcine Gasdermin D-Mediated Pyroptosis by Cleaving Pore-Forming p30 Fragment.

Coronaviruses (CoVs) are a family of RNA viruses that typically cause respiratory, enteric, and hepatic diseases in animals and humans. Here, we use porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) as a model of CoVs to illustrate the reciprocal regulation between CoV infection and pyroptosis. For the first time, we elucidate the molecular mechanism of porcine gasdermin D (pGSDMD)-mediated pyroptosis and demonstrate that amino acids R238, T239, and F240 within pGSDMD-p30 are critical for pyroptosis. Furthermore, 3C-like protease Nsp5 from SARS-CoV-2, MERS-CoV, PDCoV, and PEDV can cleave pGSDMD at the Q193-G194 junction to produce two fragments unable to trigger pyroptosis. The two cleaved fragments could not inhibit PEDV replication. In addition, Nsp5 from SARS-CoV-2 and MERS-CoV also cleave human GSDMD (hGSDMD). Therefore, we provide clear evidence that PEDV may utilize the Nsp5-GSDMD pathway to inhibit pyroptosis and, thus, facilitate viral replication during the initial period, suggesting an important strategy for the coronaviruses to sustain their infection. IMPORTANCE Recently, GSDMD has been reported as a key executioner for pyroptosis. This study first demonstrates the molecular mechanism of pGSDMD-mediated pyroptosis and that the pGSDMD-mediated pyroptosis protects host cells against PEDV infection. Notably, PEDV employs its Nsp5 to directly cleave pGSDMD in favor of its replication. We found that Nsp5 proteins from other coronaviruses, such as porcine deltacoronavirus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus, also had the protease activity to cleave human and porcine GSDMD. Thus, we provide clear evidence that the coronaviruses might utilize Nsp5 to inhibit the host pyroptotic cell death and facilitate their replication during the initial period, an important strategy for their sustaining infection. We suppose that GSDMD is an appealing target for the design of anticoronavirus therapies.

Prevalence of feline calicivirus and the distribution of serum neutralizing antibody against isolate strains in cats of Hangzhou, China.

BACKGROUND: Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a common pathogen of felids, and FCV vaccination is regularly practiced. The genetic variability and antigenic diversity of FCV hinder the effective control and prevention of infection by vaccination. Improved knowledge of the epidemiological characteristics of FCV should assist in the development of more effective vaccines. OBJECTIVES: This study aims to determine the prevalence of FCV in a population of cats with FCV-suspected clinical signs in Hangzhou and to demonstrate the antigenic and genetic relationships between vaccine status and representative isolated FCV strains. METHODS: Cats (n = 516) from Hangzhou were investigated between 2018 and 2020. The association between risk factors and FCV infection was assessed. Phylogenetic analyses based on a capsid coding sequence were performed to identify the genetic relationships between strains. In vitro virus neutralization tests were used to assess antibody levels against isolated FCV strains in client-owned cats. RESULTS: The FCV-positive rate of the examined cats was 43.0%. Risk factors significantly associated with FCV infection were vaccination status and oral symptoms. Phylogenetic analysis revealed a radial phylogeny with no evidence of temporal or countrywide clusters. There was a significant difference in the distribution of serum antibody titers between vaccinated and unvaccinated cats. CONCLUSIONS: This study revealed a high prevalence and genetic diversity of FCV in Hangzhou. The results indicate that the efficacy of FCV vaccination is unsatisfactory. More comprehensive and refined vaccination protocols are an urgent and unmet need.

Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus Inhibits HDAC1 Expression To Facilitate Its Replication via Binding of Its Nucleocapsid Protein to Host Transcription Factor Sp1.

Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) is an enteric coronavirus causing acute intestinal infection in pigs, with high mortality often seen in neonatal pigs. The newborns rely on innate immune responses against invading pathogens because of lacking adaptive immunity. However, how PEDV disables the innate immunity of newborns toward severe infection remains unknown. We found that PEDV infection led to reduced expression of histone deacetylases (HDACs), especially HDAC1, in porcine IPEC-J2 cells. HDACs are considered important regulators of innate immunity. We hypothesized that PEDV interacts with certain host factors to regulate HDAC1 expression in favor of its replication. We show that HDAC1 acted as a negative regulator of PEDV replication in IPEC-J2 cells, as shown by chemical inhibition, gene knockout, and overexpression. A GC-box (GCCCCACCCCC) within the HDAC1 promoter region was identified for Sp1 binding in IPEC-J2 cells. Treatment of the cells with Sp1 inhibitor mithramycin A inhibited HDAC1 expression, indicating direct regulation of HDAC1 expression by Sp1. Of the viral proteins that were overexpressed in IPEC-J2 cells, the N protein was found to be present in the nuclei and more inhibitory to HDAC1 transcription. The putative nuclear localization sequence 261PKKNKSR267 contributed to its nuclear localization. The N protein interacted with Sp1 and interfered with its binding to the promoter region, thereby inhibiting its transcriptional activity for HDAC1 expression. Our findings reveal a novel mechanism of PEDV evasion of the host responses, offering implications for studying the infection processes of other coronaviruses. IMPORTANCE The enteric coronavirus porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) causes fatal acute intestinal infection in neonatal pigs that rely on innate immune responses. Histone deacetylases (HDACs) play important roles in innate immune regulation. Our study found PEDV suppresses HDAC1 expression via the interaction of its N protein and porcine Sp1, which identified a novel mechanism of PEDV evasion of the host responses to benefit its replication. This study suggests that other coronaviruses, including SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2, also make use of their N proteins to intercept the host immune responses in favor of their infection.

Molecular mechanisms underlying macrophage immunomodulatory activity of Rubus chingii Hu polysaccharides.

The present study was to investigate the mechanisms involved in macrophage activation by polysaccharides from the fruits of Rubus chingii Hu (RFPs). The results showed that RFPs enhanced pinocytic and phagocytic activity, promoted the expression and secretion of inflammatory factors (ROS, PTGS2, iNOS, IL-6, IL-10 and TNF-α) and chemokines (CCL2 and CXCL10), and boosted the expression of accessory and costimulatory molecules (CD40, CD80, CD86, MHC-I and MHC-II). RNA-Seq analysis identified 2564 DEGs, 1710 GO terms and 101 KEGG pathways. TNF was identified as the core gene via analysis of pathway information integration and PPI network. The western blot analysis combined with functional verification assay confirmed that MAPK, NF-κB and Jak-STAT pathways were essential to RFPs-mediated macrophage activation. TLR2 was revealed to be the functional receptor and involved in the early recognition of RFPs. These results indicated that RFPs modulated macrophage immune response mainly through TLR2-dependent MAPK, NF-κB and Jak-STAT pathways.

NLRP3 inflammasome inhibitor INF39 attenuated NLRP3 assembly in macrophages.

INF39 is a nontoxic, irreversible, acrylate-based NLRP3 inhibitor and a further optimization of ethyl 2-((2-chlorophenyl) hydroxyl) methyl) acrylate (INF4E). However, the detail mechanism and the direct target of its anti-inflammatory activity is not clear. Here, we show that INF39 is a specific inhibitor for NLRP3 inflammasome activation. INF39 specifically suppresses NLRP3 activation but not the NLRC4 or AIM2 inflammasomes. INF39 has no effect on K+ efflux, ROS generation or mitochondrial membrane potential, which are the upstream events of NLRP3 inflammasome activation. In addition, INF39 has no direct inhibitory effect on GSDMD, which is the downstream event of inflammasomes. More importantly, INF39 inhibits the interaction of NEK7-NLRP3, and subsequently inhibits interaction of NLRP3-NLRP3, NLRP3-ASC, ASC oligomerization and speckle formation. Altogether, our study unveils a deeper anti-inflammatory mechanism for INF39 and suggests it could serve as a lead for developing novel therapeutics combating NLRP3-driven diseases.

Mycobacterial PPE13 activates inflammasome by interacting with the NATCH and LRR domains of NLRP3.

Pathogenic mycobacteria, such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium bovis, and Mycobacterium marinum, can trigger NLRP3 inflammasome activation leading to maturation and secretion of interleukin 1ß (IL-1ß). However, the mycobacterial factors involved in the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome are not fully understood. Here, we identified that the PPE family protein PPE13 was responsible for the induction of IL-1ß secretion in a NLRP3 inflammasome-dependent manner. We found that the recombinant Mycobacterium smegmatis expressing PPE13 activates NLRP3 inflammasome, thereby inducing caspase-1 cleavage and IL-1ß secretion in J774A.1, BMDMs, and THP-1 macrophages. To examine whether this inflammasome activation was triggered by PPE13 rather than components of M. smegmatis, PPE13 was introduced into the aforementioned macrophages by lentivirus as a delivery vector. Similarly, this led to the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome, indicating that PPE13 is a direct activator of NLRP3 cascade. We further demonstrated that the NLRP3 complex activated the inflammasome cascade, and the assembly of this complex was facilitated by PPE13 through interacting with the LRR and NATCH domains of NLRP3. Finally, we found that all PPE13 proteins isolated from M. tuberculosis, M. bovis, and M. marinum can activate NLRP3 inflammasome through binding to NLRP3, which requires C-terminal repetitive MPTR domain of PPE13. Thus, we, for the first time, revealed that PPE13 triggers the inflammasome-response by interacting with the MPTR domain of PPE13 and the LRR and NATCH domains of NLRP3. These findings provide a novel perspective on the function of PPE proteins in the immune system during mycobacteria invasion.

Biochemical reference intervals for homing pigeons in China.

As indicators of diseases, blood biochemical values play a crucial role in clinical practice and assessments of animals' health condition. The rising population of homing pigeons in China has prompted needs for reliable blood biochemical reference intervals. Therefore, the aim of this study was to establish biochemical reference intervals for homing pigeons. Heparinized whole blood samples obtained from 77 clinically healthy pigeons were analyzed by Zoetis Abaxis VetScan VS2 with VetScan Avian/Reptilian Profile Plus Rotor. Reference intervals for pigeons were computed by Excel with Reference Value Advisor V2.1. The statistical analysis performed by SPSS program revealed correlations between biochemical analytes. Effects of sex and age and validity of published reference intervals were also discussed. The present results serve as a useful guide to broaden the scope of pigeon breeding industry.

Higher immune response induced by vaccination in Houhai acupoint relates to the lymphatic drainage of the injection site.

Houhai acupoint (HA) is a site for acupuncture stimulation, located in the fossa between the anus and tail base in animals. To evaluate HA as a potential immunization site, the immune responses were compared when HA and the conventional site nape were vaccinated in rats. The results showed that injection of a porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) vaccine in HA induced significantly higher IgG, IgG1, IgG2, splenocyte proliferation and mRNA expression of IL-2, IL-4 and IFN-γ than in the nape. To search for the underlying mechanisms, the draining lymph nodes for HA and the nape were investigated. When rats were injected in HA with Indian ink, 11 lymph nodes including caudal mesenteric lymph node and bilateral gluteal lymph nodes, posterior inguinal lymph nodes, lumbar lymph nodes, internal iliac lymph nodes and popliteal lymph nodes were visibly stained with the ink and injection of a model antigen ovalbumin (OVA) in HA resulted in detection of OVA by western blotting while in the same lymph nodes only a pair of lymph nodes (central brachial lymph nodes) were observed when Indian ink or OVA was injected in the nape. IL-2 mRNA expression was detected in all the lymph nodes when PEDV vaccine was injected. Therefore, the enhanced immune response elicited by vaccination in HA may be attributed to more lymphocytes activated.